University of St. Thomas Law Journal

Land-Use Law as Public Health Law: The Mental Health Impacts of Urban Design 

Claire Leach*

The law of land-use regulation, including zoning laws, urban boundary control, and building size requirements, to name a few,1 affects not only a city’s skyline or curb appeal, but also the psychology and mental health of its residents. Things such as the size of a city block, existence of mixed-use neighborhoods, transportation options, and interaction with one’s neighbors can significantly impact a person’s happiness and well-being. Many of these aspects can be traced back to land-use laws that govern urban planning, and an example from Minneapolis, Minnesota demonstrates how zoning reform can lead to improvements in housing availability, overall livability, and happiness rankings. 

Legal Foundation 

Land-use law broadly encompasses the regulations governing the development and conservation of the land.2 It is inherently inter-governmental and interdisciplinary, and it often intersects with other areas of the law such as environmental, municipal, and administrative law.3 Zoning, the most common form of land-use regulation, allows local governments to designate districts and set requirements for property development and usage within each district.4  

The authority to engage in zoning practices initially arose under the state police power, which is the constitutional right of each state to regulate matters pertaining to the health, safety, morals, and general welfare of the state.5 In Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co. (1926), the US Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of zoning regulations, partly grounding the  authority in the state’s power to protect public health and welfare.6 This decision cemented the legality of single-use, or “Euclidean” zoning, which separates residential, commercial, and industrial districts into separate geographic areas.7 Since then, nearly every major urban area in the US has enacted some form of Euclidean zoning.8  

The increasingly popular alternative to Euclidean zoning is mixed-use zoning, which permits residential, commercial, and recreational spaces to co-exist within a single area.9 Despite the growing demand for mixed-use districts, many efforts face challenges at the state and local level. Throughout the years, courts have established a strong body of law grounding zoning laws in property rights and economic concerns, which has made it difficult for zoning laws to change.10 Similarly, a recent survey found that most   developers believe there is substantial market demand for mixed-use, pedestrian-friendly development; however, most of the same developers also cited zoning regulations and local ordinances as a major barrier to the development of such active living alternatives.11  

Mental Health Impacts of Zoning and the Recommended Strategies for Improvement 

The push for zoning reform and the shift away from Euclidean zoning implicates not only legal questions about how to overcome the barriers against reform, but also the mental health impacts on residents living within many traditional zoning systems. For instance, traditional Euclidean zoning often creates vehicle dependency, forcing residents to drive between home, work, and errands due to their lack of proximity to one another, increasing commute times and reducing well-being. In fact, one study found that a person with a one-hour commute must earn forty percent more money to be as happy as someone who can walk to work.12 By contrast, in mixed-use neighborhoods with walkable destinations, the opportunities for human interaction increase, boosting our sense of belonging, a core pillar of mental health.13

Many reports have acknowledged similar impacts of urban development on mental health, and some provide recommendations to combat negative impacts. For example, one area for improvement includes implementing more green space and access to nature within cities, which improves general well-being by reducing depression, stress, and improving cognitive functioning.14 Another key strategy is having more outdoor spaces for physical activity.15 Exercise is proven to be effective in reducing mild to moderate depression and anxiety while also improving self-esteem and well-being.16 Mechanisms for implementing this include increasing safe walking and biking ability with protected lanes, intentional spacing of public transportation to encourage walking between transit stops and destinations, and creating more public parks.17 Finally, one of the most prevalent strategies, and one that ties many of these factors together, is the promotion of mixed land-use.18 Locating residential areas near facilities like schools, shops, restaurants, and libraries, for example, encourages walking rather than vehicle dependence and corresponds with improved mental well-being.19  

One nationwide initiative acknowledging these effects of urban design on well-being is the Smart Growth Network, which was founded in part by the US Environmental Protection Agency.20 Through Smart Growth, the EPA has listed several fundamental principles for achieving its visions for land use and infrastructure policies that result in healthy, sustainable, equitable, and prosperous communities for all.21 Its core principles mirror the recommendations mentioned above, with common goals of creating walkable neighborhoods, preserving open environmental spaces, providing a variety of transportation options, and encouraging mixed land-use.22  

These principles also align closely with recommendations from urban design scholars, one of whom highlighted four conditions necessary for a diverse, dense, and successful city.23 The conditions include neighborhoods’ having mixed primary functions to encourage people from different groups to cross paths and ensure that people appear at different times throughout the day; short city blocks to encourage walking, turning corners, and encountering various people and businesses; mixing buildings that vary in age and preserving aged buildings to reduce turnover; and having a dense concentration of people.24  

 These shared principles among the mental health, environmental, and urban planning perspectives seem to reflect a broader shift toward health-centered urban development. The widespread problem, however, is that in cities with strict, long-standing land-use regulations, developers are often constrained by existing regulations and are limited in their ability to implement the recommended strategies for improving well-being.25 

Minneapolis as an Example of Land-Use Reform and Happiness Rankings 

Minneapolis, Minnesota is one example of a city that has enacted urban planning and zoning reform aimed partly at improving public health. In 2020, “Minneapolis 2040” went into effect, a comprehensive plan covering topics such as housing, the design of new buildings, and how the city uses its streets.26 The plan achieved greater population density in Minneapolis by eliminating single-family zoning and promoting inclusionary zoning to foster mixed-income, mixed-culture, and mixed-rent communities.27 The plan also eliminated minimum parking mandates, modified several zoning districts to increase the amount of housing that could be developed along commercial corridors and transit routes, and established building minimum heights in densely populated areas.28

Five years after Minneapolis 2040 was enacted, Minneapolis was named one of the happiest cities in the world.29 While Minneapolis 2040 likely impacted these rankings through its expansion of affordable and equitable housing and its promotion of diverse neighborhoods, Minneapolis’s highest ranked category was actually the environmental category, with experts commenting on the city’s abundant green space and public transit options.30 Another important factor was that Minneapolis consistently ranks among the nation’s highest number of commuters who bike to work, with more than two-thirds of the city’s population reporting that they often ride a bike to school or to run errands.31 The robust trail system crisscrossing the city gives residents easy access to parks, lakes, community centers, libraries, and more, giving people ample opportunities for not only exercise and environmental connection, but also social interaction and community building.32  

Of course, there are many other contributing factors to Minneapolis’s happiness rankings in addition to, or perhaps in conjunction with, these urban design factors. The profound resilience of community members, the vibrant cultural diversity, the creative arts and music forums, and the culinary scene, to name a few, are certainly of utmost impact. In tandem with these many factors, however, there is nevertheless some credit to be given to the ongoing focus on community-driven, health-centered urban design. 

Ultimately, land-use laws do more than shape a city from the outside. They shape daily life, social connection, and mental well-being. As research links walking ability, mixed-use development, green space, and alternative transit options to improved mental well-being, the push for urban design as a public health tool has become a growing focus. Despite legal barriers, cities like Minneapolis demonstrate how intentional land-use reform can promote housing access, environmental sustainability, and overall livability. Moving forward, cities may be able to draw on the intersection of psychological research and zoning laws to use land-use regulation not only for land management, but also as a powerful tool to foster connected, healthy, and ultimately happier communities.    

*Claire Leach, J.D. Candidate, University of St. Thomas School of Law Class of 2027 (Associate Editor). 

  1. The Basics of Land Use and Zoning Law, Tul. Online L. Blog (Aug. 26, 2021) [hereinafter Tulane Blog], https://online.law.tulane.edu/blog/land-use-and-zoning-law %5Bhttps://perma.cc/8DEL-BX3Y%5D. ↩︎
  2. Beginner’s Guide to Land Use Law, Pace L. Sch. 1, 4, https://www.pace.edu/sites/default/files/2024-08/law-land-use-primer.pdf %5Bhttps://perma.cc/7AGZ-S6VP%5D (last visited Mar. 1, 2026). ↩︎
  3. Id. ↩︎
  4. Id.; Tulane Blog, supra note 1. ↩︎
  5. Joseph Schilling & Leslie S. Linton, The Public Health Roots of Zoning: In Search of Active Living’s Legal Genealogy, 28 Am. J. Preventative Med. 96, 99 (2005). ↩︎
  6. Id.; Village of Euclid v. Ambler Realty Co., 272 U.S. 365, 395 (1926).  ↩︎
  7. Schilling, supra note 5, at 97.   ↩︎
  8. Tulane Blog, supra note 1; Peter Bajurny, A Primer on Zoning Codes: The Basics, streets mn (Mar. 25, 2016), https://streets.mn/2016/03/25/a-primer-on-zoning-the-basics/ [https://perma.cc/TR87-3AQZ]. ↩︎
  9. Tulane Blog, supra note 1. ↩︎
  10. Schilling, supra note 5, at 97. ↩︎
  11. Schilling, supra note 5, at 97. ↩︎
  12. What is the Relationship Between Zoning Walkability and Mental Well Being?, Sustainability Directory (Sep. 9, 2014), https://lifestyle.sustainability-directory.com/question/what-is-the-relationship-between-zoning-walkability-and-mental-well-being/ %5Bhttps://perma.cc/9483-9LP5%5D. ↩︎
  13. Id. ↩︎
  14. How Urban Design Can Impact Mental Health, Ctr. for Urb. Design and mental Health, https://www.urbandesignmentalhealth.com/how-urban-design-can-impact-mental-health.html [https://perma.cc/QSW3-9QUU] (last visited Mar. 1, 2026). ↩︎
  15. Id. ↩︎
  16. Id. ↩︎
  17. Id. ↩︎
  18. Id. ↩︎
  19. Id. ↩︎
  20. Coalitions: Smart Growth Network, Smart Growth America, https://www.smartgrowthamerica.org/programs-and-coalitions/smartgrowth-org/ %5Bhttps://perma.cc/W4MV-5FZL%5D (last visited Mar. 1, 2026). ↩︎
  21. Id. ↩︎
  22. Jaime Ramos, Smart Growth: Principles and Examples of Smart Urban Planning, Tomorrow City (Jan. 26, 2022), https://www.tomorrow.city/smart-growth-principles-and-examples/ %5Bhttps://perma.cc/TS7A-L8TV%5D. ↩︎
  23. Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities 150–51 (1992).  ↩︎
  24. Id. ↩︎
  25. Kaley Overstreet, Zoning Laws and Their Impact on Urban Planning in the United States, Arch Daily (Jan. 10, 2023), https://www.archdaily.com/994782/zoning-laws-and-their-impact-on-urban-planning-in-the-united-states [https://perma.cc/KR8D-LCNV]. ↩︎
  26. Libby Starling, Overview of Minneapolis Fed’s Analysis of the Minneapolis 2040 Plan, Fed. Reserve Bank Minneapolis (Aug. 1, 2023), https://archive.legmt.gov/content/Publications/fiscal/2025-Biennium/MARA/Overview-Minneapolis-Fed-Analysis-2040-Plan-Presentation.pdf [https://perma.cc/W2CW-CJCH]; Linlin Liang, Adam Staveski & Alex Horowitz, Minneapolis Land Use Reforms Offer a Blueprint for Housing Affordability, Pew (Jan. 4, 2024), https://www.pew.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2024/01/04/minneapolis-land-use-reforms-offer-a-blueprint-for-housing-affordability %5Bhttps://perma.cc/KNE9-LZLD%5D. ↩︎
  27. Starling, supra note 26. ↩︎
  28. Liang, supra note 26. ↩︎
  29. Anthony Bettin, Minneapolis Is One of the Happiest Cities in the World, New Study Shows, CBS News (Apr. 24, 2025, at 10:47 CT), https://www.cbsnews.com/minnesota/news/minneapolis-one-of-the-happiest-cities-in-the-world/ %5Bhttps://perma.cc/8X7K-FUJU%5D.  ↩︎
  30. Id. ↩︎
  31. Lindsey Galloway, Why Minneapolis Is One of the World’s Happiest Places, BBC (June 3, 2025), https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20250530-why-minneapolis-is-one-of-the-worlds-happiest-places %5Bhttps://perma.cc/5QFN-4UUX%5D. ↩︎
  32. Id. ↩︎

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